HOW WORDS WORK
(Revised Edition)
Part One
PRO-GRAMMAR PROGRAM
of
PROGRESSIVE PARSING
and
CONSTRUCTION
Copyright 1983
by Allan Wooley
p. i
Table of Contents
Chapter Set Page
1. The Simplest Sentences & Bottom-line Basics 1-2 1
common characteristics of utterances
inductive definition of 'word' & 'sentence'
2. The Simplest Sentence Reconsidered and Expanded 3 2-3
explanation & tentative definition (noun/verb)
form & function chart (subjekct/predicate)
inductive definition:- modifier on DRILL SHEET
3. The Two Worlds (Word & Surd) 4 3-4
explanation: reference & relation
F&F chart- modifiers Composition/observations
ID transitive verb & direct object
on dependence & pronoun
4. The Chain of Command 5 4-5
explanation: dependence, pron., & dir. obj.
F&F chart; Compo with demo of dependence
ID adverbial (prep.) phrases & clauses
5. Of Clumps and Clusters 6 6-8
(phrs./cls. & noun/verb nuclei=subj./pred.)
expl: word-groups with F&F chart
prepositions & conjunctions
Compo with labels of F&F, depend.#, & brackets
ID ind. obj. & adverbial use of the infinitive
6. From Complements to Clumps 7-9 8-10
expl: various complements; thin line & 'to'
ID appositive, subject complement, object
complement, passive voice & agent
7. More Mechanisms of Emendation (engines of innovation) 10 10-12
expl: types of appositives / linking verbs
full analysis of verb types / sentence types
transformations & passive voice
8. Inside and Outside (Clumps): the dual capacity of verbs 11 12-13
expl: demonstratives, expletives, & gerunds
general definitions; verbs- inside clump
ID adjectival clumps, & pronouns again
9. Stand-ins and Staff 12 14-15
expl: pronouns (esp. relative); Clump Chart
ID more noun clauses & coordination
10. The Parameters of Parataxis 0 15-17
expl: coord. conj.; generic cls.; ind. quest.
Four-Fold Function Format
Four rules of hypotactic governance & emendation
INDEX 18-19
p. ii
Lesson 1
The Simplest Sentence & Bottom-line Basics
Example Set #1 a. Come!
b. Go!
c. Think!
d. Jump!
e. Smile!
Perhaps these five 'utterances' share certain common characteristics or
even a common pattern or set of features. If so, then we need a term to name
the pattern, and other terms to name the separate features. If you note any
pattern(s) or striking similarities, list your observations here before
continuing: _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now consider the five new 'utterances' in Example Set #2 below. Does any part
of the 'utterance' in Set # 2 resemble the 'utterances' in Set #1 in any way?
List the similar parts in the blanks below to the right of Set #2.
#2 part resembles #1 utterance
Example Set #2 a. Fads fade. ___________ = ____________
b. Art endures. ___________ = ____________
c. Scholars work. ___________ = ____________
d. Santa laughs. ___________ = ____________
e. Birds fly. ___________ = ____________
Perhaps these five new 'utterances' have their own special set of
characteristics. List your observations below; try to be as precise as
possible in describing the similarities that you notice: __________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Now in the Omni-functional Daily Drill Sheet [ODDS], find and circle ten (10)
'utterance-parts' or word-groups that have the same pattern as you observed
and listed above in Set #2. Number your circled selections. You should do
this exercise before continuing. In fact, it might be worthwhile for you to
read the entire Drill Sheet and to compare what Plato has to say there about
'utterances' to what you have just observed and written down above.
Now that you have read Plato's remarks and thought some more about the
characteristics of utterances, you may be ready to undertake a first attempt
at defining clearly and exactly some very important traditional terms such as
'word' and 'sentence'. Write down your suggestions before continuing: _______
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
p. 1
Lesson 2
The Simplest Sentence Reconsidered and Expanded
Before we can proceed to expand and develop these rudimentary kernel
sentences, we must study them more closely and achieve a more precise
theoretical understanding of what is really going on; otherwise, we will be
very much like an architect who tries to design a building without any
knowledge of engineering,- that is, without knowing the proper functions of
the different materials and the relative strengths of various structures.
Let us start then by summarizing Plato's remarks: a word is an uninterrupted
series of contiguous letters that fit together; words are the basic
components of speech; words come in at least two types; to make a
'statement' we need both the types considered by Plato. Plato's 'statement'
is our sentence. Consider the following chart:
WORD (historical) FORM FUNCTION (in sentence)
Type #1 (verb) asserts action (predicate)
Type #2 (noun) names actor (subject)
This is still very incomplete, but it is enough for a solid start. Now make
up three (3) sentences with the same pattern or structure as those in Set #2;
write them down here and label each word according to its form and function.
FORM FUNCTION
VERB NOUN SUBJECT PREDICATE
Sent. #1 ___________________________ ____ ____ ____ ____
#2 ___________________________ ____ ____ ____ ____
#3 ___________________________ ____ ____ ____ ____
Now reconsider the examples in Set #1. What seems to be missing? The
actor-naming subject is understood; it is the 'you' to whom the command is
directed. Thus, the 'utterances' in Set #1 are also sentences. One kind of
sentence is called 'declarative', another is 'imperative', and still another
is 'interrogative'. Write an example of each type and label it:
___________________________________________________ LABEL: _________________
___________________________________________________ _________________
___________________________________________________ _________________
Now consider the next set of sentences:
Example Set #3 a. Foolish fads fade quickly.
b. Beautiful art endures forever.
c. Some scholars work hard.
d. The fat elf laughs aloud.
e. Little birds fly together.
p. 2
Here we have some new kinds of words: what do they do? To what do
they do it? Do you notice any patterns? Could we use the position of the
word in the sentence to determine its function? Are there words that seem
different in type (because of word-position or whatever) and that seem still
to have a similar function? List your observations and suggestions here
before going on. ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now on ODDS pick out examples of these new types of words (mark 10 [ten]
examples of each type numbering each type separately). As you re-read Plato
this time, consider whether 'walks' itself walks or whether 'lion' is a lion.
What does Plato mean when he says that "the signs that we use in speech to
signify being"? Do the words 'unicorn', 'Hamlet', 'ghost', 'flag', 'circle',
or 'truth' signify or refer to anything real,- that is to any being? All in
the same way? Does the word 'meaning' mean anything? Note your observations
here before continuing:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 3
The Two Worlds
Again we must deepen our theoretical grasp a little more before we can
continue effectively. It seems clear that a symbol stands for something else,
but it is not that for which it stands. A flag stands for a nation, but is
not the nation. The word 'flag' can stand for the class of all flags, an
indefinite member of the class, or an actual particular flag, but it is not
itself a flag. The word 'circle' stands for a circle that is drawn and for
the perfect circle that can never be drawn, but can only be meant. In fact,
some thinkers believe that the perfect circles, lions, tables, etc. are the
real 'things' symbolized. At this point in our study we need to be aware that
there are at least three possible ingredients in the process of symbolization:
the symbol itself, the thing(s) symbolized (also called the referent), and the
link(s) or relation(s) between them, which is sometimes called the 'meaning'.
But what does this have to do with grammar? Simply this: words are
symbols that have two very general functions: reference and relation. As
Plato suggests, words refer to something that exists outside and beyond the
linguistic context in the 'real' world which we will call the surd (i.e.
speechless) world. Whereas reference extends outside the system, relation
pertains within the system. As Plato again suggests, this second function of
words is their relation to one another in their own world, which we will call
word world. Now we are better prepared to give a more thorough description of
all the word-types used in Set #3. Consider this chart:
WORD FORM FUNCTION
Type Reference to Surd World Relation within Word World
1 Verb names an action forms base (predicates)
2 Adverb names a quality modifies a verb
3 Noun names an object is subject of a verb
4 Adjective names a quality or modifies a noun
a quantity
p. 3
Now make up three sentences with each of the form- and function-types
from above, and label each word with its form-type above and its function
below: ______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
From a linguistic point of view what are the components of surd world so
far? Review your definitions of subject and predicate; try to state
precisely what 'modification' is. Note that Word World is no democracy in
which all are equals. What do you observe about the dependence or governance
of words? List your observations here: ______________________________________
Components- __________________________________________________________________
Modification- ________________________________________________________________
Dependence- _________________________________________________________________
Now consider the next set of sentences.
Example Set #4 a. We forget foolish fads.
b. You save beautiful art.
c. They praise some scholars.
d. She hears the fat elf.
e. It chases little birds.
How is 'fads' here different from 'fads' in Set #3? What is the
difference between the word 'forget' here and the word 'fade' in Set #3? They
both seem to make an assertion. In the sentences 'Santa laughs' and "He
laughs' how do the subjects differ from each other? Is word-position any help
in describing the new types and functions? How does the new word-type
resemble a variable in algebra? Note your observations here:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now on ODDS find, circle, and number five (5) examples of the type like
'we', five words that function like 'fads', and five verbs like 'forget',
labelling them as T, F or V respectively in their circle.
Lesson 4
The Chain of Command
You have noticed that there is a very clear chain of command within a
sentence. The governor or commander-in-chief is the verb; all the other words
depend on it directly or indirectly. In general a word's function determines
its dependence: if X is subject of Y, then X depends on Y; if X modifies Y,
then X depends on Y. For instance, in Set #4.a 'foolish' modifies 'fads'
which is the direct object of 'forgets'; therefore, 'foolish' depends on
'fads' which depends on 'forgets' which depends on nothing because it is the
p. 3
main verb. But the chain of command is not immutable or exclusive, it does
allow some rearrangements or substitutions. One such substitution is to put a
pronoun in for a noun. A pronoun operates like a variable in algebra and can
replace a noun in any of its relational functions, especially when the speaker
wants to index his reference in various ways. One specific type of this
systemic referencing is done by personal pronouns which index the three
persons and the two numbers (i.e., singular and plural): I, you, he-she-it;
we, you, they. Finally you have probably observed that some verbs assert an
activity that involves only the subject, while other verbs assert actions that
involve several parties; i.e., at least a subject and an object (direct
object in Set #4). The first type is called intransitive because it just
asserts an activity, while the second is transitive because it affects an
object. Now let us update our chart:
WORD FORM FUNCTION DEPENDS
Type Reference Relation on
1 Verb activity/action act, affect nothing
2 Noun object give/get action verb
3 Pronoun object replace noun verb
4 Adjective quality modify noun
5 Adverb quality (degree-) modify verb (&)
Now make up three sentences using all these word-types and label each word
above (by form) and below (by function). Also number each word to show its
dependence, numbering the first main verb as 1, the first word in the sentence
that depends on it as 11, and so on:
11 12 1 131 13
We quickly forget foolish fads.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now consider the next set of sentences:
Example Set #5 a. When fads fade into oblivion, we forget them.
b. When we save art, it saves us from triviality.
c. When scholars work on a project, they forsake leisure.
d. When Santa laughs at night, Rudolph hears him.
e. When a hawk comes, it chases little birds across the sky.
Do you notice any new patterns? Any new word-types? Any new form- or
function-types? Are the new word-types associated with the new structures or
patterns in any way? Does word-order or word-position help us to see or
define the new features more precisely? How do the new structures fit into
the sentence? Note your observations and suggestions here:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS find, circle (or mark), and label 5 similar structures for each new
type, labelling the 'when' type as C and the 'into/from' type as P.
p. 4
Lesson 5
Of Clumps and Clusters
Every coherent word-group can be replaced by a single word. That is to
say, every coherent word-group operates as a single word; therefore, it has a
sentence function and a form,- that is, it is a particular part of speech.
Moreover, every coherent word-group is built around a single base-word (main/
head/key word), and word-groups can be classified as clumps or clusters on the
basis of the relationship between the base word and the whole word-group. If
the base word and the word-group are the same part of speech with the same
function, then the word-group is a cluster; otherwise, it is a clump. To
study this, compare the following three sentences (the first is 4.d):
i) She hears the fat elf.
ii) She does hear Santa.
iii) She has been hearing Santa.
In i) the word-group 'the fat elf' which clusters around the base 'elf' can be
replaced by the one word 'Santa'. Both 'Santa' and 'the fat elf' have the
same form and function; therefore, 'the fat elf' is a noun cluster. In ii)
and iii) the simple verb 'hears' is replaced by compound verb clusters. In
the interest of practical uniformity and historical cogency we always take the
lexical item (the dictionary form) of the verb as the base. Accordingly,
'hear' and 'hearing' are the bases, while 'does' and 'has been' are the
adjuncts. Adjuncts are of two kinds: helping verbs as those above or 'modal
auxiliaries' like 'can', 'must', 'should', or 'may'. Ultimately, every
sentence breaks down into a noun (/pronoun) cluster called the subject (topic
or power-grip) and a verb cluster called the predicate (comment or adjustment-
touch). Consider the following sentence:
The big hawk soon will relentlessly chase the little birds away.
The subject cluster is 'the big hawk' and the rest of the sentence is the
predicate cluster. Note that this predicate is made up of a verb (-cluster),
an object (-cluster) which answers the question 'What?', and adverbs
(-clusters) which answer the questions 'When? Where? How? Why?'.
A clump is a very different type of word-group. Consider, for instance,
the word-group 'across the sky' from 5.e. Since this group answers the
question 'Where?' about the action of the verb, it must operate as an adverb.
Likewise, the group 'at night' in 5.d operates as an adverb because it
explains when Santa laughs; likewise again, the group 'When Santa laughs'
modifies the main verb, specifying the period of its possibility or
pertinence. Therefore, all these three groups operate as adverbs, although no
single word in them is an adverb. When the sentence function of the whole
word-group is different from the immediate function of its base word, then the
group is called a clump. Now finish the following chart to include all the
clumps in the sentences in Set #5:
INTRO Base Base Base Clump Clump Clump
WORD WORD FORM FUNCTION FORM FUNCTION DEPENDENCE
When fade verb act adverb modify forget
into oblivion noun object adverb modify fade
When save verb aff(ect) adverb modify saves
from triviality noun _____ ______ ______ ______
____ ______ ____ _____ ______ ______ ______
____ ______ ____ _____ ______ ______ ______
p. 5
The traditional name for a word that introduces a clump whose base word
is a noun is a preposition, while a conjunction is the word for a 'when'-type
word that introduces a verb as a base word. Notice that the function of both
of these is the same: they are both 'introductory connectors'. Prepositions
and conjunctions are Janus words which look inward into their clump and
outward to the rest of the sentence. They connect their clump to some word
outside their clump on which the whole clump depends. Consider the similarity
of connectors to modifiers in respect to their systemic equivalence:
INTRODUCES / MODIFIES WORD-TYPE
Preposition Adjective NOUN
Conjunction* Adverb VERB * only subordinate so far
Now let us again update our chief chart:
WORD FORM FUNCTION DEPENDS Type of
Type Reference Relation on Clump
6 Preposition STATIC introduces & NOUN PHRASE
relationship connects
7 Conjunction STATIC intro & connects VERB CLAUSE
If the philosophers would permit us to define an activity or action as a
dynamic relationship, then we could suggest that from the point of view of
Word world, the Surd world consists of objects, qualities, and the dynamic and
static relationships between them, an of which can be asserted or implied. If
Surd world seems absurdly simple, Word world is not far behind: it seems to
use only a handful of basic operations or manipulations to connect words
together. Note your comments & observations here.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now make up three sentences that use the two types of clumps above, labelling
each word, numbering its dependence, and bracketting each clump:
E.G.: (When Santa laughs [at night])
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now consider the next set of sentences:
Example Set #6 a. Satan gives us fads to distract us.
b. To save art we sell it to museums.
c. Scholars tell you the truth to free you.
d. To convince them, show them your proofs.
e. He offered us money to catch the birds.
What is special about verbs meaning to give, tell, or show? In sentence
b) what is difference between the clumps 'to save' and 'to museums'? How do
constructions like 'to distract us' fit into the rest of the sentence? What
function does this construction perform in the sentence? Note your
observations and suggestions here: __________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS locate, circle, and label 5 instances of each of the new constructions.
p. 6
Lesson 6
From Complements to Clumps
The verbs that we have seen so far operate like power switches
connecting one or more terminals in a circuit. The first terminal is the
subject; sometimes it is the only terminal,- for instance, when an
intransitive activity verb operates as both switch and condenser. If a verb
involves more than one terminal, then the others are complements which
complete, elaborate, and further specify the sense of the verb. For example,
verbs of sharing (giving, telling, and showing) expect both a direct and an
indirect object to complete their sense; a passive verb expects (but does not
always get) a prepositional object identifying the agent. Other verbs expect
other types of prepostional objects identifying such things as the means,
manner, cause, time, or place of the action. Consider the following examples:
I will: relax / enjoy a break / take a vacation / show myself a good time
rejoice at the respite / unwind with movies, with difficulty, from
studies, at night.
Here we are faced with a provocative phenomenon. There seems to be an almost
transparent point at which noun complements turn into adverbs. Consider this:
SHOW ME TO THE ANIMALS, AND SHOW ME THE ANIMALS.
Here there is a little bit of grammatical ambiguity in which some see gigantic
philosophical problems. It should at least remind us that only a thin line
separates an inflectional indirect object (ME #2) from a prepositional
indirect object (ANIMALS #1), and that from a regular prepositional object
(also ANIMALS #1, when you understand 'show' in the sense of 'take'). Try
some more examples:
Take me home. His temperature rose two degrees. I walked two miles.
I studied all night. Show me home / show me your home.
Thus only a thin line separates a one-word adverb and an adverb that is a
prepositional phrase, especially if the one-word adverb stands for an
elliptical or decayed phrase.
Next let us add still another perplexing complication. Besides
introducing indirect objects and other goals the preposition 'to' is also used
to introduce another kind of phrase called an infinitive. Traditionally, when
'to' introduces a noun or pronoun, the result is called a prepositional
phrase, but when 'to' introduces a verb, it is called an infinitive, and that
'to' is sometimes called 'the sign of the infinitive' and disallowed as a
preposition. However, from the examples in Set #6 you have noticed that just
as a prepositional phrase can operate as an adverb, so too can the infinitive.
In each of those sentences the infinitive expressed the purpose of the main
action by answering the question 'why?'.
Now that we have met the infinitive, it is time to clarify the
distinction between the finite and non-finite forms of the verb. A finite
form is one that can have a specific subject of the normal kind; all the
verbs in Sets #1 to 5 are finite. An infinitive is obviously one of the
p. 7
non-finite forms. Either a finite or a non-finite verb may be a compound-verb
cluster consisting of a base and adjuncts; for example 'has been fading', 'to
have faded', 'had forgotten', 'to have been forgotten', or 'must consider'.
On ODDS find, circle, and label the finite and non-finite verb clusters. Then
make up three sentences using the various kinds of complements discussed so
far, LABELLING each: ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Next write down three sentences using a prepositional object or an adverb,
then 'transform' each into the other (e.g., 'in public' into 'publicly'):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now we need to reassess and perhaps to revise and update some of our previous
definitions such as 'sentence', 'clause', 'phrase', and 'predicate'. Make
every effort to avoid circular definitions. Are there any further differences
between phrases and clauses? Consider the form and function of interjections.
Can one word serve two masters? Is 'one word, one function' a viable rule?
Note your observations and suggestions here: ________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Here is the next set of sentences:
Example Set #7 a. Fads are foolish.
b. That art, sculpture, was beautiful.
c. Some scholars will be athletes.
d. The elf, Santa, had been fat.
e. These birds were sparrows.
Try to describe exactly the new kind(s) of constructions. What
pattern(s) do you see? Are there old word-types with new functions? What is
the purpose of the verbal adjuncts? Does this function overlap with the
functions of any other word-type? Note your comments here: ________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Consider another set of sentences:
Example Set #8 a. We consider fads foolish.
b. They call that art sculpture.
c. He made some scholars athletes.
d. I thought this elf fat.
e. You named these birds sparrows.
Try to describe this new construction exactly and to detail its
similarity to that in Set #7. Can you produce a rule that will govern all the
varieties of constructions in these two sets? Are there any old word-types
with new uses? Note your comments here: ____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
p. 8
Consider yet another set of sentences:
Example Set #9 a. Foolish fads are forgotten.
b. The beautiful art will be saved by you.
c. Some scholars were praised.
d. The fat elf is heard by her.
e. The little birds have been chased by a hawk.
Try to describe exactly the relation of this set to Set #4. Can you explain
exactly the operational steps to achieve this transformation? Try to give a
purely formal characterization of this construction and then explain how it
affects the sense. Note your observations and suggestions here: ____________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now manipulate (transform) Set #8 in the same way that Set #4 was manipulated
to produce Set #9; try to note the specific steps that you take and their
sequence: ___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS find, circle, and label five (5) examples of each new construction in
the sets in this lesson.
Lesson 7
More Mechanisms of Emendation
If the most general functions of language are two, reference and
relation, then the engines of innovation in language must also ultimately be
twofold, metaphor and emendation. This is not a new thought, but one sadly
forgotten and undeveloped. Metaphor has fared better than emendation; until
recently it was accepted as at least one fountain source for new words,
senses, and even ideas. Emendation provides the same source of syntactic
experimentation as metaphor does for semantic. We have seen how a simple
sentence can be emended progressively by modifiers, complements, and clumps
to make its sense more specific and explicit. Besides these mechanisms of
emendation there is one perhaps even more primitive engine that we must now
consider, apposition. The rule induced from consideration of Sets #7 & 8 is
simple enough: An appositive is a noun (or rarely pronoun) which refers to
the same person or thing as the noun or pronoun next to which (directly after
which) it is placed, unless it is linked to it by a special linking or
factitive verbs. There are three types that are determined by verbal
involvement. Type 1 has no verbal involvement and is signalled by
juxtaposition; type 2 is construed with a linking verb and is called a
TYPE SENT # APPOSITIVE depends on BASE WORD NAME
1 7b sculpture art regular
2 7c athletes scholars subject complement
3 8e sparrows birds object complement
subject complement or a predicate noun (nominative); type 3 is construed with
a factitive verb and is called an object complement or predicate accusative.
p. 9
Since these linking and factitive verbs manipulate nouns and adjectives
equivalently we should also note the same cross-over phenomenon here that we
observed in the continuum from complement to adverb. The word 'wood' can be
an adjective or noun in the sentence "It is wood." Describing a table this
word is an adjective; describing a lump or chunk it is a noun.
At this juncture we can also complete our chart of verb functions in the
simple sentence. Consider this listing:
ABBREVIATION CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Intransitive
act(ivity) process predication He thinks.
link(ing) property/class member He seems philosophical.
Transitive
aff(ective) directed action He considers life.
eff(ective) directed production He thinks thoughts.
fac(titive) He considers you a thinker.
As a result of this analysis of verb functions we can now systematically
and exhaustively categorize and review the types of Simple Sentences:
SUBJECT PREDICATE (verb type & dependents: required or [optional])
1. S V-1 act: [adverb modifiers]
2. S V-2 link: Pred. Noun/Adjejctive [& modifiers]
3. S V-3 aff: Complements- Dir. Obj. [& i.o., p.o. & modifiers]
4. S V-4 eff: Product (with fac: d.o. [p.o. & modifiers])
Note carefully that passive verbs fall into sentence types 1 or 2 in a
very systematic way: the passive of type 3 becomes a type 1; the passive of
type 4 becomes a type 2. Moreover, remember that the passive is best defined
formally (i.e., with no reference to meaning): as any compound verb cluster
that includes both a form of the verb 'be' and the so-called 'ed/n' form
(perfect passive participle) of the base word. Note also that the basic
transformational rules for voice operate reciprocally, changing function (and
position) horizontally in the following chart:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Subject ------------ Prepositional Object (Agent)
Direct Object ------------ Subject
Object Complement ----------- Predicate Noun
Make up and write down three sentences using the new constructions, labelling
above and below, and transform them (e.g.: p.o. to adv., or act. to pass., or
phr. to cl., etc.):___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Consider this set of sentences:
p. 10
Example Set #10 a. I thought this, that fads in language fade.
b. That the art of the masters willendure is true.
c. Scholars want to work on the results from this test.
d. The elf at the North Pole loves laughing aloud.
e. That it is fun to fly is what birds find by flying.
Are there any old word-types in new forms with new uses? Are there any
new types of clause constructions in this set? What are their form and
function? Are there any similarities in the way that the new constructions
operate or fit into the sentence? Try to describe the new phenomenon as
exactly as you can- perhaps an operational definition- that is, a recipe for
production. Note your observations and suggestions here: ___________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS find, circle, and label the constructions similar to the new ones in
Set #10.
Lesson 8
Inside and Outside
The demonstrative pronouns are 'this' and 'that'. You probably noticed
that they can also be used as adjectives. The word 'that' requires some care
because it can be a conjunction as well as a pronoun and adjective! Again,
you may have noted that in Set #10.e 'to fly' is the subject of 'is fun'.
The 'it' is just a place-holder or a filler like 'there' in "There is a table
here.". These fillers are called 'expletives'. You may have also noted that
prepositional phrases may operate as adjectives; for instance, in #10.a
'language' is the prepositional modifier of 'fads'. Nouns and adjectives, as
well as verbs, may govern prepositional phrases. Moreover, you certainly
observed that all the subordinate verbs in Set #10 were the governing words of
noun clumps, just as those in Sets #5 & 6 were of adverb clumps. Noun clumps
provide another fruitful mechanism of emendation; a noun clump can be used in
any function-spot that a single-word noun can fill. Of particular interest is
the non-finite verbal form in 'ing' which is called a gerund and is instanced
in #10.d & e. A gerund is formally defined and classified as a verbal noun,-
more about this anon (cf. p. 14). Before we can continue with this topic,
however, we need to update our definitions.
A predicate is a finite-form verb with its complements and modifiers.
A clause is a predicate with its subject. A subordinate clause is a clause
that does not stand on its own, but depends upon some word in another clause;
it is or may be introduced by a subordinating word such as a conjunction. A
main clause is a clause which may stand alone, functioning like an
interjection in that it depends on nothing else; moreover, a main clause is
not introduced by any subordinating word. A sentence is one or more
connected main clauses with their respective dependent phrases and clauses.
"One word, one dependence" is always a good rule- there should be no breaks,
bumps, or jumps in the chain of command, except, of course, that main verbs
have no dependence,- like interjections. Thus a well-formed sentence would be
one in which the chain of dependence from any word to its main verb is 'clear,
distinct,' continuous, and untangled. "One word, one function" is a rule that
works for all words except subordinate verbs and interjections.
p. 11
Verbs are also a very special and powerful part of speech: not only
does a base verb govern all the other words in its clump directly or
indirectly by performing one of the verb functions within the clump, but also
operating as the representative of its clump this same base verb can be
assigned the function and dependence of the whole clump. In fact, this is the
most practical, efficient, logical, and historically cogent way of analyzing
the dependence and connection of clumps. As an analytic convention,
therefore, we assign subordinate base verbs two sets of function-form-&
dependence: inside its own clump the base verb always functions as a verb;
but outside its own clump, and standing for its clump it operates in some
other capacity and as some ееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееееlar.
d. This is the elf himself whom you seek, hoping for a gift.
e. Waddling along, they are some of the birds which do not fly.
Is there a type of word that takes the place of another type? How many
varieties are there of the word-type to which the 'they' of #11.e belongs?
Are there any new types of clump constructions? Note your comments and
observations here: __________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS find, circle, and label this new type of construction, and then do the
same for the varieties of the pronoun, distinguishing them in some way in a
separate chart.
p. 12
Lesson 9
Stand-ins and Staff
You probably noticed that 'that' again; this time it turned up as a
relative pronoun. Label each 'that' in the following sentence:
THAT is better than knowing THAT THAT word can have several uses THAT
are quite different from each other.
In the last Set there were more '-ing' words; both these and the '-ed/n'
words are called participles. They are defined and classified as verbal
adjectives. Accordingly, participles operate by the same inside/outside rules
as gerunds and other subordinate verbs and verbals. 'Verbal' is a name
traditionally given to the non-finite verbs. You probably also noted the
ubiquity of the infinitive, which is also a verbal, of course.
Before we can continue, we need to reconsider some basics about
substitution and modification. For the most part modification involves two
aspects, dependence and highlighting. The highlighting makes something
explicit or emphatic that was only latent and implicit before. Thus a
modifier highlights some aspect of the word for which it does staff work.
Such is an adjective; a pronoun, on the other hand, is usually defined as a
surrogate for a noun, i.e. a stand-in. And, in fact, a pronoun is a sort of
linguistic indexed variable, standing in for an assigned or assignable value
(reference); but it seems to be more, because every type of pronoun has an
adjectival form. Here is provocative dilemma; and there are other 'items'
that lurk in the interval between noun and adjective,- namely, the appositive
and the expletive. The expletive seems somewhat like a ghost pronoun. Is
there perhaps also some connection between pronouns and appositives? Here is
a rule of thumb to consider in this regard: whatever directly precedes the
base noun in a noun cluster functions as an adjective. In other words, a noun
appositive or a pronoun appositive that precedes a noun becomes adjectival.
This grammar rule is another in a growing number of positionally determined
function rules. Consider this chart:
TYPE EXAMPLES in #11 ADJECTIVE FORM TYPE OF REFERENCE
Personal they their keyed to social proximity
Relative who, which, that which antecedent in gov. clause
Interrogative who, which, what which, what open- in question
Indefinite any(one), some() any, some open- in statement
Demonstrative this, that this, that keyed to spatial proximity
Reflexive himself, herself his (own) subject of clause
The relative pronoun is particularly important because it is used to
introduce the last general type of clause, the adjective clause. The relative
pronoun and its clause is a fairly complex syntactic device. A relative
pronoun has a dual function, but only in its own clause where it is a subject,
direct object, or such like, as well as operating as a sort of an introductory
connector, but outside its clause it agrees in number with its antecedent
which is the relative's referent, form-determinant, and the word in the
governing clause upon which the whole relative clause depends.
p. 13
We are now ready to survey the varieties of clumps classified by
functional form and by type as determined by its base word.
PART OF SPEECH PHRASE TYPE CLAUSE TYPE CONNECTOR TYPE
ADVERB inf.- purpose comparative conjunction
temporal
prep. causal
conditional
result-purpose
NOUN inf.- complementary appositive conjunction
objective indirect discourse
subjective indefinite/generic pronoun
gerund indirect question pronoun/adverb
ADJECTIVE inf.- prolative relative pronoun
participle correlative
prep.
Now make up and write down three sentences that use all three kinds of
clumps. Then try some transforms (for instance, change phrases to clauses and
vice-versa): ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Here is the last set of sentences:
Example Set #12
a. Whoever works and toils wonders why he does or what purpose he serves.
b. Sin taxes our tolerance, but syntax taxes our talent.
c. Neither scholars nor artists produce works without toil or trouble.
d. Santa gave whomever he met a gift; for whoever is jolly is generous.
e. Birds can fly; therefore, there is no question how they can travel
across rivers or over cliffs.
Try to classify the clumps within the guidelines of the chart above.
Are there any new word-types or old word-types with new functions? How do you
make syntactic equals and unequals? Can relative pronouns ever introduce
clauses which are not relative? _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
On ODDS find, circle, and label the new word-types and constructions.
Lesson 10
The Parameters of Parataxis
Most of syntax deals with hierarchies of governance; there is very
little room for equality. Most of the little egalitarian democracy that
exists is managed by the coordinate conjunctions. There are only five types:
p. 14
conjunctive (and..), disjunctive (or..), illative/implicative (therefore..),
adversative (but.), and causal (for.). Like the other connectors coordinate
conjunctions connect, indicate a static relationship, & look forward and back
(or inside and outside their word-group); but there are many differences:
first of all these are different from all other connectors because they do not
introduce or come first in the word-group but are medial; the word-group is
not a clump but rather a cluster; there is no subordination of any structure
or word-group. Secondly there are differences from subordinate conjunctions:
there are only five types of coordinates; they do not connect just verbs, but
any equal units whether word, phrases, or clauses. At this point it should be
noted that basic logic operates by using only linking verbs, the negative
adverb not, three of these coordinate conjunctions, and a few pronominal
(quantitative) adjectives,- but according to very strict rules. Now make up
and write down examples of coordinate conjunctions connecting various kinds of
equal units: ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Certain kinds of substantive (noun) clauses are introduced by pronouns
instead of conjunctions. There is, for instance, the indefinite relative
clause (also called the generic relative) such as 'whoever ...' in Set #12.a.
This clause operates as a noun; it is the subject in 12.a and the 'whomever
...' clause in 12.d is an indirect object. This type of clause seems to have
come about by the absorption of a pronominal antecedent by the relative
clause. "He who works succeeds" becomes "Whoever works succeeds". The
interrogative pronoun or adverb is also used to introduce as indirect question
which is a substantive (noun) clause as in 12.a (or in 12.e where the indirect
question is in apposition with the noun 'question'. Now make up and write
down three sentences illustrating these points. _____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now we can consolidate our observations with some conclusions. Here is
the master chart:
WITHIN OWN CLUMP OUTSIDE
FUNCTION DEPENDENCE FORM FUNCTION DEPEND FORM
Predicator Interjection 0 verb
act 0 verb Terminal verb noun
link noun
aff pron.
eff Modifier n/p adj.
adjunct v/a/a adv.
Terminal
subj. d.o. i.o. verb noun/pronoun
p.o. verb/noun
appos. noun/pron.
(reg. p.n. o.c.)
Modifier
modify noun/pron. adjective
adj/adv/verb adverb
Connector
introduce noun preposition
& connect verb subord. conjunction
connect word/clump coord. conjunction
p. 15
Finally, it only remains for us to codify the rules of hypotactic
emendation:
1. Clump integrity: Each clump is a coherent unit whose territory is
defined as the unbroken string of words that depend directly or
indirectly on the base word. No word from any governing or equal
clump may intrude into its own territory.
2. Point of purchase: Only single words can govern words or word
groups; conversely, all clumps are governed by single words.
3. Algorithmic recursive inclusion: No matter how subordinate a word is,
it may still govern a more subordinate word or clump. In other words,
any clump may include a more subordinate clump. Words may not include,
but only govern. Clumps may not govern, but only include.
4. Reciprocal substitution: A clump can replace a word in all its
functions except governance, and a word may replace a clump in all its
functions except inclusion.
5. Unitary correspondence: One word, one function,- except in the cases
of subordinate verbs, verbals, and interjections.
Now completely parse the following sentence, numbering dependence and
labelling above (form) and below (function) and bracketting all clumps:
Trying to learn about parsing sentences which went on until he thought that
they would never end, he fell asleep.
Now on ODDS find, circle, and label all those words and constructions not
previously circled; there should not be too many! Finally, make up and write
down three sentences that contain constructions not yet covered; if you can
not find any, then include the most difficult constructions you know and then
perform some routine transformations on them (passive to active, condensation,
expansion, etc.): ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The End