The study of language has three parts: phonology, semantics, and grammar. Of the three grammar seems to be the most difficult and the last-learned by children. Phonology sees words as combinations of sounds; semantics sees words as symbols referring to things and events around us; and grammar (or syntax in its original sense) sees words as parts of a rule-governed system which casts words into various roles and so structures the relations between words. This summary will be a galloping glimpse of that system and its most fundamental rules, roles, and relations,-- in three parts: first, a list of some initial rules, assumptions, and observations; then some definitions; and finally a somewhat fuller explanation of these.
1) Some words can stand alone and others can not. 2) The (syntactic) relationships between self-standing words are always implicit; those between group-included words are sometimes implicit (not outwardly indicated or signalled). 3) Stand-alones (independent utterances/thoughts) express, direct, and report our emotions, efforts, and experiences. 4) Interjections and sentences are the two classes of stand-alones. Sentences are much more explicit, flexible and meaning-measurable than interjections. 5) Sentences are the minimal unit of self-sufficient and modifiable symbolic utterance/thought. 6) The main mark of a sentence is predication, which is the root of expression, direction, and reporting, a root capable of growth. 7) If predication is the kingpin of the system, then dependence is the linchpin that holds it together. Dependence is the implicit unequal relationship between two words. 8) In Indo-European there is a scale of three levels of dependence-based functions (in descending order): complements (or terminals), conditioners (or modifiers), and connectors. 9) Each of these four sentence functors (predicators & the 3 C's) has its specialized subtypes. 10) Of particular importance is the subject, a subtype of terminal, since it is the primary dependent of a predicator. 11) When a function is not an implicit relation, it is outwardly signalled by a special sound (FORM) or location. 12) In Indo-European the sentence functions are also connected with the four basic abstract reference types (which are semantic categories): object, property, static and dynamic relationship (or event). 13) There are four levels of syntactic groupings or organization (in ascending order): morpheme, word, phrase, and clause. Phrases may be either clumps or clusters. 14) Several words form a coherent group when the group has a syntactic function of its own-- can be replaced by a single word. This type of coherent group of words is a clump. A higher level may always be replaced by a lower. 15) The base-word of a clump has two functions- one inside its clump and a different one outside, representing the function of the whole clump. 16) Dependence has two general forms (inclusion & accretion) depending on the levels of the participants: A dependent construction of a lower level is included in a higher level; a dependent construction of a higher (or equal) level accretes to a lower (or equal). 17) The only level capable of predication is that of words; and words govern other words only in so far as their function is higher in the 'cybernetic' scale of functions.
word: the minimal linguistic unit (utterance/concept) with semantic
reference, syntactic function (use in a sentence), and phonetic
independence
coherence: state of connectedness that allows a group of words to operate
as one. Clumps and clusters are such connected groups of words.
construction: the syntactic use of any word or coherent group, or the
word or group so used, or the act of construing: to CONSTRUE is to
pick out & explain the arrangement & connection of the words &
word-groups in a sentence- to deal with items 13-17 above
base word: the governing or main word of a coherent group
sentence: the minimal linguistic unit of self-sufficient and modifiable
(structured) symbolic utterance/thought
relation: state of connection between stand-alones or group-included
words
transitivity: a state of unequal connection/relation between group-
included words
function: the performance, in a transitive relation, of some operation
that affects the immediate construction
governance: a transitive relation from the perspective of the stronger
functor
dependence: a transitive relation from the perspective of the weaker
functor
cybernetic: applied to a function or word that actually (or potentially)
governs another function or word- especially predication or main
verb
accretion: dependence on a lower-level construction by juxtaposition
outside the borders of the governing functor
inclusion: dependence on a higher-level construction by subsumption
within the internal structure and borders of the governing functor
form: outward (phonetic) sign of a construction/word's function
part of speech: a semi-syntactic, semi-semantic, dependence-based
description of historical word-types often signalled by its form:
to PARSE is to give the part of speech of a word, or better, its
form, function, & dependence- that is to deal with items 6-12
above
The PART SYNTACTIC TARGET SEMANTIC REF Historical of Speech performs Function on Type by Function Type FORM VERB Predicates 0/PT naming event/action -ize NOUN Complements Pred naming object -ity PRONOUN Complements Pred referencing obj/term th/wh- ADJECTIVE Conditions Term naming property -ous ADVERB Conditions Pred/Mod naming property -ly PREPOSITION Connect Term naming static relation short CONJUNCTION Connect P/PTM naming static relation th/wh- INTERJECTION 0 0 emote (direct, inform) vowel
1) The most fundamental role or function of a word is to be a dependent
or an independent utterance (or thought), like a cell in a multicellular
organism or like a single-celled organism. An independent utterance may
be susceptible of specification (e.g., a main verb) or not so susceptible
(e.g., a primitive interjection), just as some cells can expand into
tissues by mitosis, while others can only separate into two independent
cells by fission. Most words are independent and occur within sentences;
therefore, their relations to each other are determined by their
(syntactic) function in the sentence.
"Wow! This makes sense."
Here we have two utterances: the first is independent- an interjection;
the second is also independent- a sentence. The independent kernel of
the sentence is the main verb 'makes'; the other words in the sentence
depend on it.
2) Often relations between words or utterances are implicit; that is,
they have no overt phonetic/semantic element. Also it often happens that
one of the words supporting a construction (or indicating a relationship)
may be elliptical.
"Run! Fire!"
Here the addressee (you) is implicit in 'Run!' and 'There is a' is
implicit with 'Fire!' The implicit connection between 'Run!' and 'Fire!'
is causal: Run, because there is a fire!
"He said he studied two hours."
has left out a 'that' & a 'for': He said (that) he studied (for) two
hours with the girl (whom) you liked.
"The five pretty French girls"
Implicit relationships are the reason that we can not say 'French pretty
five the girls'; there is a semantically determined word-order sequence
for adjectives.
The term 'function' has another sense when a self-sufficient utterance
(an interjection or sentence) is said to COMMUNE, COMMAND, or
COMMUNICATE. Independent utterances are affective, conative, and
cognitive to the extent that they express emotion, exert influence, or
transmit information. This classification involves and overlaps with
that of sentence-types or of the moods of verbs: declarative,
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, and so forth. In the case of
interjections (& exclamations) most of any command or information is
implicit.
"Promise that you will exclaim, 'Wow! What fun!',
if a test is passed out."
In this sentence there are examples of communion (ironic joy) in 'Wow!
What fun!'; command (& performative assertion) in 'Promise'; and
communication (including modal statements) in 'you will exclaim' & 'a
test is passed out'
3) The self-standing word-types are interjections and verbs.
Interjections sometimes occur in a group or colony (an exclamation) with
a sort of quasi-syntax or internal hierarchy; verbs usually occur in
word-groups which are bound together by the rules of syntax. Such verb-
dominated word-groups are called sentences.
"Oh bloody blast and hot damn!"
Here is an exclamation expressing anger; it has several words with
different 'functions': the 'oh' alerts the implicit addressee, while
'blast' & 'damn' express the main 'message'. The 'bloody' & 'hot'
intensify, and the 'and' compounds the 'message'.
"Oh well, okay."
This exclamation alerts, expresses resignation, and then contingent
acquiescence, although the real emotional nuances of interjections
depends upon their 'real-world' context.
5) A sentence is the smallest verb-based coherent word-group that can
stand alone. It comes in four kernel/basic types as determined by the
subtypes of predication (items 6 & 9), and is the upper limit of the four
levels of syntactic organization (i.e., a clause in item 13).
"Jump!" This is a one-word sentence.
"Learning to parse words, the student began to understand what syntactic
structure meant." This sentence has one main verb (began) and several
varieties of subordinate verbs (& verbals).
6) PREDICATION is the prerequisite and primary function,- the center and
cynosure of the whole system,- and the foundation of sentence structure.
Predication is essentially an expressing, directing, and informing that
semantically asserts a state or action and syntactically provides a
structural platform on which to build.
"Students learn well." "Students learn many things." "Students
are learners." "Students make corrections." Here are the four basic
types of predication, cf. item 9
7) Dependence is the implicit unequal (asymmetrical) relation between two
words whereby one word is felt to rely on another,- as a finger relies
on a hand which relies on a wrist which relies on a forearm, and so on.
Syntactically the dependent word surrenders control of its position,
contribution, and power to its governor; semantically it subordinates
its sense to that of its governor. All the sentence functions except
predication are based on dependence which is their elemental ingredient.
"These are very good examples" (A dash means 'depends on')
very- good-examples- These- are: The 'are' is an independent word and
the base of this sentence.
8) In the Indo-European family of languages there are three levels of
dependency-based functions. When we say that word x depends on word y,
we can always further specify whether x complements, conditions, or
connects y. Connectors are the minimal explicit syntactic functors, and
as such they rarely govern other words. Connectors are the minimal
functors because they merely make the dependence of their governor
explicit with the minimum of semantic baggage (e.g., spatial, temporal,
ordinal relation). They operate almost as a transparent link, often
barely contouring the dependence. Conditioners (more usually called
modifiers) do more than just link together two words almost
transparently; they highlight some semantic aspect of the word on which
they depend. Complements depend on and complete the semantic
expectations of its governing word. Each of these dependent functors
expands progressively the sense of its base word with increasing
variability and flexibility.
"Study this summary of syntax frequently during the week." The
'of' introduces 'syntax' and connects it to 'summary'; the 'during'
introduces & connects 'week' to 'study'; the 'this' conditions 'summary'
telling which summary is meant; and 'frequently' conditions 'study'
telling when to study; and the 'summary' completes the sense of 'study'
answering the question what is to be studied, as 'syntax' completes the
sense of 'summary' telling what has been summarized.
9) Each of the four main sentence functions has been specialized in
various ways and so has developed a number of subtypes:
PREDICATOR TERMINAL MODIFIER CONNECTOR
1. activity subject quantifier introductory (subordinate)
2. link dir. obj. qualifier medial (coordinate)
3. performance indir. obj. preceptor
4. product prep. obj.
5. (adjunct) appositive
6. subj. compl.
7. obj. compl.]
10) Regardless of the type of predication, every predicator word has a
subject (usually explicit, but sometimes implicit as in a
command/imperative). A subject is the primary connection of a
predicator,- the starting place for the assertion.
"Good students do not always learn quickly and easily." The
'students' is the subject and the 'learn' is the predicator.
SVO = (subj. verb obj.): The boy bites the dog.
11) The markers for explicit syntax are not always separate words nor
even obviously regular physical phenomena.
phonetic markers:
bound affix = an inflection: boys/boy's/boys' or accent or
intonation: What sur^ veys? What sur-veys^?
separable markers (wherein the habitual invariability of usage signals
function): 'candle' is considered a terminal; 'think' is
considered a predicator ; 'from' is considered a connector.
12) Sentence functions of syntax and the abstract reference types of semantics
are logically quite distinct and separate categories, although they have been
historically confused from their discovery/invention by the Greeks. The usual
definitions of the parts of speech are a confused mixture of syntactic and
semantic categories. Not only has the definition of the parts of speech
evolved over time, but more the parts of speech themselves have evolved. Part
of this process we can study historically, and perhaps we can observe all the
process in the development of a child's speech as it progresses through the
three stages of
1) hylozoic holophrastic (one-word utterances with global
preconcepts)
2) proto-schismatic (two-word utterances when the basic principles
of syntactic expansion are evolving through the ujse of semantic
vehicles and syntactic pivots)
3) hypertactic hierarchy of a fully expanded language that has
collective conventional classifications]
But even at this last stage we can observe a period when there were no
prepositions, which arose from a specialized use of some adverbial particles.
In fact there is some evidence that adverbs themselves arose just on the other
side of the hill of history, at a time when conjunctions were arising from
pronouns. There is also some evidence that some forms of parataxis (perhaps
apposition) are more primitive than other syntactic relations, but it is
important to realize that some forms of parataxis are very complex and perhaps
recent (inclusive versus exclusive disjunction), and that even an appositive is
not paratactic in the sense of being an equal with its noun,- syntactically it
is dependent.
13) There are four levels of syntactic organization: morpheme, word,
phrase, and clause:
A morpheme is the smallest unit of sense or syntactic structure. A
morpheme may be bound or free.
A word is the minimal interchangeable semantic unit with
syntactic functionality and phonetic independence. Many words
are constructed of more than one morpheme. For instance,
'constructed' is constructed from the root 'stru' which is
qualified by the 'adverbial' prefix 'con', the suffix for the
perfect passive participle 'ct', and the English past participle
inflection 'ed'.
A phrase is a group of words that can not stand alone but does
have a syntactic unity and coherence. It has this unity because
it operates and functions as one word. Phrases come in two
types; both are organized around one base-word (also called
key/head/main word). In clusters the whole word-group has the
same function as the base-word and the word-group is merely as
expansion of the base-word,- a sort of appositional expansion.
In clumps the word-group as a whole has a function quite
different from that of the base-word. "Here is the
slob, a gross and amorphous mass of lard" An appositive is a
terminal phrase cluster.
"In an effort to start studying this very enlightening material
he sat down." Prepositional phrases, infinitives, gerunds, and
participles are phrase clumps.
A clause is a clump that has a subject and a predicate and that
can stand alone. A subordinate clause does not stand alone, but
functions as a terminal or a modifier. A main clause is
syntactically independent and functions as an interjection.]
14) The four levels generally function as just two types: clumps (both
phrases and clauses) and words (including some morphemes). Clumps may
not govern (external accretion), but only include (internal expansion);
words may not include, but only govern; otherwise, words and clumps are
completely interchangeable. A higher level of construction may always be
replaced by a lower:
"He promised that he would try whatever he could find by which he
might study more effectively." Here we have three subordinate
clauses.
"He promised to try to improve his studying." The clauses have
been replaced by phrases.
"He promised a stronger attempt at study." The phrases have been
replaced by words.
15) In order to preserve the basic simplicity of the system epitomized in
the rule "one word, one dependence", the most practical, efficient,
logical, and historically cogent way of analyzing relations and
connections is to assign two functions to the base-words of clumps;
otherwise, the rule "one word, one function" holds. The first function
of a base-word is the function that it has in its own clump; the second
is its function and dependence outside its clump when it represents the
function of the clump as a whole.
"He promised that he would try studying harder for the test." In
its clump 'test' is a prepositional object terminal, outside it
is an adverbial modifier dependent on 'studying'. In its clump
'studying' is an activity predicator, and outside it is a direct
object terminal depending on 'try'.
16) The system allows multiple recursivity in both types of dependence
(inclusion and accretion). No matter how subordinate a cybernetic word
is it may still govern a further accretion. No matter how subordinate a
clump is, it can include a further nested clump, which must be governed
by a word in the 'governing' clump. Thus a sentence can involve multiply
nested clumps or multiply dependent accretions.
"This sentence has what students call (I) complexity because it
involves (II) exponentiated dependence which is (III) the
multiple nesting (IV) of clumps (V) or because it involves (6)
not (5) very (4) directly (3) dependent (2) words (1)." The
Roman numerals indicate recursively nested clumps; the Arabic
numbers indicate the multiply accreted words.
17) Not all words are cybernetic; a word is cybernetic only to the
extent that it predicates. Whether a word can be susceptible of
specification (i.e., cybernetic) depends on its role in relation to other
words. Connectors are not normally cybernetic; conditioners (modifiers)
often are cybernetic; terminals are more often cybernetic; predicators
are always cybernetic. It is significant that clumps never function as
either pole of the continuum of dependency, and that only the two medial
and ambivalent functors (complements and conditioners) share the power of
expanding the sentence.
"If you study, you will learn whatever you want" 'If you study'
functions as a conditioner modifying 'learn'. 'whatever you
want' functions as a direct object terminal complementing
'learn'.